Acronyms

2PLM: Two-Parameter Logistic Model

ALL: Adult Literacy and Life-skills

DS: Digit Span

ESL: English as a Second Language

GDP: Gross domestic product per capita

IALS: International Adult Literacy Survey

IALSS: International Adult Literacy and Skills Survey

IRT: Item Response Theory

ISRS: International Study of Reading Skills

LCA: Latent Class Analysis

OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

PPVT-m: Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (modified)

PSU: Primary sampling units

PSU: Primary sampling units

RAN: Rapid Automatized Naming – Letters

TOWRE-A: Test of Word Reading Efficiency – Real Words

TOWRE-B: Test of Word Reading Efficiency – Pseudo-words