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Education and learning among Aboriginal children

Preschool programs or early childhood development programs
Reading, or being read to
Extra-curricular activities
Getting along with other children, classmates and teachers
Factors related to family socio-economic background

In Aboriginal societies, the family, Elders and the community play key roles in children's learning and education. In this context, the socialization of children includes not only the development of cognitive capacities, but also the learning of ways to behave in society.

Ultimately, the child needs to develop fully "intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically" to become an "Aboriginal citizen" capable of taking up the responsibilities for societies and communities (RCAP, 1996: 434).

The 2001 APS includes information on extra-curricular activities, including time spent with Elders, helping out in school and communities, participation in art or music, or group activities such as dance, drum and youth groups. It also includes information on preschool programs, especially those designed specifically for Aboriginal children, and their Aboriginal language abilities.

However, there is still a lot of information about learning outside of the school system which this survey was not able to capture. For example, there is no information on story-telling which may be happening both within the family and the Aboriginal community. Nor does the survey ask questions on life skills unique and/or essential to Aboriginal societies.

Finally, education outcomes are confined to school outcomes, such as repeating a grade, rather than to a fuller spectrum of measures which may include other aspects, such as spiritual and emotional development. The 2001 APS does not have any direct measures on education outcomes, such as tests administered to children as part of the survey.

That said, the importance of a sound formal education is increasing with time. With the advent of the knowledge-based economy, jobs are becoming increasingly scarce for individuals without a diploma or a degree from a high school, college or university. Within the Aboriginal population, significant differences were found in unemployment rates among people with different educational background.

According to the 2001 Census, the unemployment rate for Aboriginal adults aged 25 to 34 with university degrees was 8%, while that for those who had completed grade 9 but not high school was 28%. For those who had not completed grade 9 the unemployment rate was 40%. Researchers have also found that post-secondary educational attainment has some major positive influences on employment and earnings for Aboriginal peoples (Hull , 2000; Maxim et al., 2000).

Many authors (e.g., Cairns , Cairns and Neckerman, 1989; Astone and McLanahan, 1991) have traced the path toward dropping out of school to a child's first years at school. It is obvious that education and learning, especially in an individual's early years, are crucial to individual success and community prosperity.

Education attainment among the Aboriginal population in Canada has increased over the past few years (Siggner, 2003; Statistics Canada, 2003). In 1996, just over half (52%) of the Aboriginal population aged 20 to 24 living in non-reserve areas had not completed secondary school. By 2001, this proportion had dropped to 48%¹⁰. Nevertheless, there was still a huge gap in comparison with the Canadian population as a whole. By 2001, only 26% of the general population aged 20 to 24 had not completed secondary school.

Given the importance of education and learning in the early years and the fact that children today represent the future tomorrow, it is imperative to ask: How well do Aboriginal children between 6 and 14 years of age perform in school? What factors contribute to their success at school?

Preschool programs or early childhood development programs

Attendance at a quality early childhood development or preschool program is often considered to be a factor facilitating a child's cognitive and social development. This is particularly the case among children from economically disadvantaged families (Palacio-Quintin, 2000; Cleveland and Krashinsky, 2003).

According to the 2001 APS, just over half (53%) of Aboriginal children aged 6 to 14 living in non reserve areas had attended an early childhood development program when they were younger¹¹. Again, Inuit children were far less likely to have done so. Only 35% of Inuit children had attended a preschool program when they were younger, compared with 54% of North American Indian children, and 57% of Métis children.

As shown in Chart 5, over the past few years, more Aboriginal children living in non-reserve areas were attending preschool programs that were specifically designed for them. Among the 14-year-olds, only 4% had attended preschool programs specifically designed for Aboriginal children when they were preschoolers. At the time of survey in 2001, 16% of six-year-old Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas had attended preschool programs specifically designed for them.

Chart 5. Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas who ever attended preschool programs, Canada, 2001

Therefore, in eight years, the proportion of Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas going to preschool programs designed for them increased almost four-fold. It is equally clear, however, that while one in two Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas attended preschool programs, only one in six attended programs specifically designed for them¹².

There was no statistically significant change over the last few years in the proportions of Aboriginal children attending other preschool programs, that is, those programs not specifically designed for Aboriginal children.

Reading, or being read to

In general, researchers have found that reading, or being read to, (apart from as required by school) can have a positive impact on a child's education outcomes, particularly his or her reading skills (e.g., Sénéchal and LeFevre, 2002, Cooks and Willms, 2002). This section examines the relationship between reading, or being read to, and the school outcomes of Aboriginal children, such as repeating a grade.

However, it is important to note that information on other related activities which may be taking place in the homes and communities of Aboriginal children, such as story-telling, is not available.

Chart 6. Proportion of Aboriginal children aged 6 to 14 in non-reserve areas who repeated a grade by how often they read or are read to, Canada, 2001

As illustrated in Chart 6, the more Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas read or were read to, the less likely they were to repeat a grade. Some 26% of these children who didn't read or were never read to, repeated a grade, twice the proportion of those who participated in this activity just a few times a week.

Gender differences exist among Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas aged 6 to 14 concerning reading or being read to. About 56% of girls read, or were read to, on a daily basis, compared with 43% of boys. Conversely, while 9% of boys never read or were never read to, only 4% of girls were in the same situation.

There were also differences among the three Aboriginal groups. While 27% of Inuit children aged 6 to 14 read or were read to every day, the comparable figures were 51% for North American Indian children and 52% for Métis children.

Extra-curricular activities

Analysis based on the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY) revealed a correlation between participation in extra-curricular activities and a number of other measures. Children who participate in organized extra-curricular activities (sports, art, music, clubs and so on) are more likely to possess greater self-esteem, to enjoy better social interactions with their friends and to achieve relatively higher scholastic results (Statistics Canada, 2001).

The 2001 APS allows an examination of the participation in extra-curricular activities by Aboriginal children living in non-reserve areas, as well as any correlation between such participation and school outcomes. However, it is not possible to establish any causal relationship.

Sports are the most popular activity among Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas aged between 6 and 14. About 71% of Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas participated in sports activities at least once per week. Time spent with Elders (34%) ranked second, followed by art and music (31%) and clubs or youth, drum and dance groups (30%). About 21% of Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas helped out in the community or school at least once a week without pay.

The survey found significant differences in school performance between Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas who engaged frequently in extra-curricular activities, compared with those who rarely or never did so. Parents were asked to rate how well their child did in school, based on their knowledge of the child's school work, including report cards.

As shown in Chart 7, 64% of Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas who helped without pay in the community or school four times or more a week did very well in school, as reported by their parents. At the same time, among those who rarely or never helped out, only 38% were reported as doing very well.

Similarly, 47% of Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas who spent time with Elders four times or more a week were reported doing very well in school. But among those who rarely or never spent time with Elders, only 38% did very well.

About one-half (51%) of Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas who participated in art or music activities four times or more a week were doing very well in school, compared with only 37% of those who never, or rarely, precipitated.

Finally, 45% of Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas who participated in sports four times or more a week were reported doing very well in school, compared with only 36% who never, or rarely, participated in sports.

Chart 7. Proportion of Aboriginal children aged 6 to 14 in non-reserve areas who were doing very well at school, by frequency of participation in selected extra-curricular activities, Canada, 2001

Getting along with other children, classmates and teachers

In general, children who have problems interacting with their classmates and their teachers are more likely than others to drop out of school and/or experience difficulties. That is, they are less motivated to attend school, suffer a loss of self-confidence, and so on (Cairns, Cairns and Neckerman, 1989).

A vast majority of Aboriginal children maintained harmonious relationships with those they met daily in their school settings. Nearly all Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas aged 6 to 14 (97%) got along fairly well, well or very well with other children. The majority (58%) of them got along "very well, with no problems" with other children.

Generally speaking, Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas also got along well with their teachers. Frequent or constant problems with teachers were only reported for a very small percentage of Aboriginal children, although older children seemed to be more likely to have such problems - about 7% of 13-year-olds did so. Boys were generally more likely to have problems with teachers than girls.

In the six-to-nine age group, 81% of Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas reported a positive relationship with other children, as did 91% of Canadian children in general.

Factors related to family socio-economic background

De Broucker and Lavallée (1998) found that the higher the parental education, the higher the eventual educational attainment of children. Many factors may explain this phenomenon.

For example, parents with higher levels of educational attainment tend to take a greater interest in their child's academic performance and encourage activities that are likely to facilitate school success, such as reading (Stevenson and Baker, 1987). They generally have higher expectations for their children when it comes to education, a key factor in school success of children (Teachman and Paasch, 1998; Teachman, 1987; Astone and McLanahan, 1991; Hill, 2001).

As shown in Chart 8, among Aboriginal children living in non-reserve areas, there is a clear association between the parent's level of education and the likelihood of children ever repeating a grade. Just over one-fifth of Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas aged 6 to 14 whose parent had not gone beyond elementary school had repeated a grade at some point in their life. As the parent's education level increases, the proportion of children having ever repeated a grade decreases. Among Aboriginal children in non-reserve areas whose parent had a bachelor's degree or higher education, only 6% had repeated a grade at some point in their life.

Chart 8. Proportion of Aboriginal children aged 6 to 14 in non-reserve areas who repeated a grade by parent's level of education, Canada, 2001

Another factor having an impact on children's school success is family or household income. A vast number of studies have demonstrated that children from economically disadvantaged families experience greater difficulties in learning and more problems in school (Duncan and Brooks-Gunn, 1997; Smith et al., 1997; Petterson and Albers, 2001; Chao and Willms, 2002; Ross, Roberts and Scott, 2000).

This appears to be true also for the Aboriginal children living in non-reserve areas. About 16% of children in families with income below the low income cut-off had repeated a school year at some point, compared with only 10% of children in families at or above the low income cut-off.