Summary of findings

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Some of the findings in this study reveal considerable differences in how Internet users and non-users spent and perceived their time during the diary day. Most significantly, heavy Internet users spent substantially less time in social contact with others. This finding stands out due to its potential social impact on users, as well as its magnitude (even after adjustment, heavy Internet users spent nearly two hours more time alone during the diary day than non-users). Further, heavy users spent over one-and-one-half hours more time alone than even moderate users. In this respect, moderate Internet users were more akin to non-users than they were to the Net’s heavy users during the diary day. In spite of their reduced contact however, Internet users expressed slightly greater enjoyment for attending social events and participating in clubs or social organizations than non-users.

Not only did Internet users spend less time in face-to-face contact with others, but their lifestyles were also very different. Internet users spent considerably less time on paid work and domestic activities, and also expressed a lower level of enjoyment for domestic work. Once again, the extent of Internet use mattered as even moderate Internet users spent nearly twice as much time working during the diary day as heavy users. Although the moderate/heavy user classification is a simple one, such findings underscore the importance of including time spent on the Internet in studies of time use rather than treating Internet users as a single group (Nie and Hillygus 2002).

Other lifestyle differences included the fact that Internet users devoted less time to sleeping, relaxing, resting and thinking compared with non-users. Given the possible associations between sleep, rest and stress levels, a number of indicators reflecting Internet users’ perceptions of their own time management were examined.

Interestingly, a greater proportion of heavy Internet users indicated that they were willing to cut back on sleep when they felt they needed more time, but by and large, it was the moderate users and non-users who in fact tended to have less free time at their disposal. Once controlling for work status and other social and demographic factors, heavy Internet users did not differ significantly from non-users in two indicators of stress used in this study. On the other hand, moderate users were slightly less likely to report that they felt rushed or that they found most days stressful.

A final key finding is that although the Internet potentially displaces time spent on traditional sources of information and entertainment, Internet users were avid consumers of other media. In fact, heavy Internet users spent essentially the same time watching television as non-users and both heavy and moderate use of the Internet were associated with increased time spent reading books. The survey did not assess whether individual users had cut their television viewing over a period of time, but certainly the fact that heavy Internet users were still likely to spend just over two hours during the day watching television questions the extent to which Web surfers might view the Internet as a ‘replacement’ for television, or rather as simply another source of diversion in the form of information and entertainment in general.

Overall, this study has identified key differences in social contact, time spent on work and domestic activities, and attitudes and perceptions of time and stress among Internet users and non-users. An important next step is to gather detailed information to determine what these differences mean in terms of health, relationships, and quality of life for the user. For example, while the data reveal that some Internet users spent sizeable periods of time on email or chatting with other users, knowledge of the nature and quality of information exchanged, and possible impacts of various types of online interaction on the well-being of the user would be even more revealing. Research elsewhere has made a number of contributions toward understanding social aspects of online interaction and behaviour (see for instance, Boase, Horrigan, Wellman and Rainie 2006, Boase and Wellman 2005, DiMaggio, Hargittai, Neumann and Robinson 2001). In some cases, the Internet may enhance social capital, enabling users to keep in touch with family, friends and other contacts separated by distance, and broaden social networks which are sometimes useful for seeking help, advice, or assisting in important decisions (Boase, Horrigan, Wellman and Rainie 2006). These types of considerations should not be dismissed. Indeed, when examining specific trends it is important to maintain the awareness that Internet use can act as both a socially-enhancing and socially-inhibiting activity (Nie and Hillygus 2002). The diverse nature of Internet activity calls for more detail on the impacts of specific types of use, and stresses the need to distinguish users by their online activities rather than treating all users as an aggregated whole (van Zoonen, Walczuch, Aalberts and Fjelsten 2003, Miller and Slater 2000). While findings of this study demonstrate a number of distinct differences in the time allocation of Internet users and non-users, they also caution that relationships between Internet activity, attitudes, and time use should not be oversimplified.