Leave practices of parents after the birth or adoption of young children

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by Leanne C. Findlay and Dafna E. Kohen

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• Introduction
• What you should know about this study
• Most Canadian children have mothers who take paid leave
• Government leave programs for parents in Canada and Quebec
• Relative to children in the rest of Canada, those living in Quebec are more likely to have a father who takes leave
• Mothers who work full time are more likely to take leave
• Fathers working full time are less likely to take leave
• Self-employment associated with shorter leave for mothers
• Mothers' leave affected by post-partum depression
• Self-employed fathers take shorter leave
• Children with special medical needs at birth have fathers who take longer leave
• Summary

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Introduction

Many parents take time off work to care for a child after birth or adoption. International research has shown that socioeconomic circumstances, including parental employment characteristics, may influence whether one or both parents take leave and how much leave they take.^{Note 1} For example, the fact that a parent works part time or full time,^{Note 2} or is self-employed,^{Note 3} may impact leave decisions. Parent's leave from work may also be influenced by policies that govern their eligibility for time off work with or without income replacement for the birth or adoption of a child.^{Note 4} In Canada, such policies vary by province of residence, with differences existing between Quebec and other provinces and territories.

However, only limited research has examined whether the use of leave by either mothers or fathers is associated with child and maternal health factors such as premature birth, the child's health at birth, and maternal post-partum depression. Parents who perceive that their child has greater health care needs or is at risk for developmental delays may postpone their return to work.^{Note 5} It is also possible that maternal depression or childbirth complications may be associated with increased leave by either parent.^{Note 6}

While previous research has examined leave patterns using administrative data such as Employment Insurance benefits,^{Note 7} few studies have used survey data. Survey data has the advantage of including additional characteristics that may be associated with leave after birth or adoption, such as child or maternal health.

This article provides a snapshot of leave patterns using data from the 2010 Survey of Young Canadians (SYC), conducted in 2010-2011. The article focuses on children aged 1 to 3 whose mother, father or both were working prior to the birth or adoption. Two aspects of the mothers' and fathers' patterns of self-reported leave are considered: whether leave was taken and its duration. The article also examines certain employment characteristics of the children's parents at the time of the survey, as well as health factors that might be associated with leave.

It is important to note that the unit of analysis of the Survey of Young Canadians is the child. Therefore, throughout this article, the reader should interpret any information presented about the mother or father as a characteristic of the child. For more information on the concepts and definitions used, see "What you should know about this study".

Most Canadian children have mothers who take paid leave

Among 1- to 3-year-old children living outside Quebec, about three-quarters (73%) had mothers who worked at a job or business in the 12 months before their birth or adoption; about two-thirds (67%) had mothers who worked after their birth. Among children whose mothers were working before their birth, 90% of mothers reported having taken leave, and their average leave was approximately 44 weeks (Table 1). Children whose mothers did not report taking any leave (10% of the total) were more likely to be from a lone-parent family, and/or to have a mother with less education, and/or to have a mother with a lower income compared with children whose mother did take leave (analysis not shown).

Table 1 Type and length of leave taken by working mothers and fathers of children aged 1 to 3

More mothers took paid than unpaid leave, although it is possible for them to have taken both types of leave. Among children outside Quebec whose mothers were working prior to their birth, more than 4 in 5 (83%) had mothers who took paid leave. One-fifth (21%) of children outside Quebec had mothers who took unpaid leave (Chart 1). The average length of paid leave was 40 weeks, while it was 4.5 weeks for unpaid leave.

Chart 1 Paid leave is more common among parents of children living in Quebec

Among children living in Quebec, 69% had mothers who worked prior to their birth or adoption. Almost all children in Quebec had mothers who reported taking leave (99%) and this leave was longer on average (48 weeks) than in the rest of Canada (44 weeks). Most mothers (97%) took paid leave and it too was significantly longer than that taken by mothers living elsewhere in Canada. As was the case outside Quebec, 1 in 5 children living in Quebec (21%) had mothers who took unpaid leave (Chart 1). A slightly larger proportion of mothers in Quebec (72%) worked after their child's birth or adoption compared with mothers in the rest of Canada (67%) (Table 1). 

The relative distribution of mother's leave was similar for children living in Quebec and elsewhere in Canada. About one-third of children had mothers who took 2 weeks of leave or less (32% in Quebec and 36% elsewhere in Canada) (data not shown). Almost one-half of children had mothers who took between 25 and 52 weeks of leave (48% for both regions). However, 15% of children in Quebec had mothers who took more than 52 weeks of leave, a higher proportion than the 9% elsewhere in Canada. Overall, the findings suggest that there is a wide range in the length of leave taken in Quebec and in other Canadian jurisdictions.

Relative to children in the rest of Canada, those living in Quebec are more likely to have a father who takes leave

Most Canadian children had fathers who were working prior to their birth or adoption (95% outside Quebec, 90% in Quebec), and most fathers were working after (95% and 92%, respectively) (Table 1). However, more than three-quarters of children in Quebec (76%) had a father who took some type of leave, a much higher proportion than the one-quarter of children living elsewhere in Canada (26%). This pattern has been shown in other Canadian studies.^{Note 8}

For the majority of children, differences in fathers' ability to obtain paid leave appear to influence leave patterns. For example, the average length of paid leave for Quebec fathers was 5.5 weeks, while for non-Quebec resident fathers it was 1.7 weeks. Unpaid leave was taken by a smaller proportion of fathers in Quebec compared with fathers elsewhere in Canada. The average lengths of unpaid leave for the two groups of fathers were 0.2 weeks and 0.7 weeks, respectively (Table 1).^{Note 9} These differences may reflect the 5 weeks of non-transferable paternity leave available to fathers living in Quebec. Although the Survey of Young Canadians did not collect information on the specific source of paid leave, administrative data suggests that 1 in 5 fathers claim CEIP/QPIP benefits.^{Note 10}

Most children outside Quebec had fathers who took 2 weeks of leave or less (89% compared with 40% of those in Quebec). In contrast, a larger share of children living in Quebec had fathers who took between 3 and 5 weeks of leave (43%) compared with slightly under 3% in the rest of Canada (data not shown).

Overall, there are differences in parental leave patterns between children living in Quebec and those living elsewhere in Canada. For children living in Quebec, their mothers and fathers were more likely to take leave, and this leave was longer than that taken by parents elsewhere in Canada. This was particularly true for fathers. These variations may reflect differences in legislated leave provisions between Quebec and the rest of Canada, especially the non-transferable paternity leave which is not available to fathers outside Quebec.

Although differences in leave patterns were observed between children in Quebec and those elsewhere in Canada, the associations between parents' socioeconomic conditions, child and maternal health, and length of leave follow similar trends in the two regions. However, due to sample size restrictions, the next part of the analysis investigating the impact of these factors—first on whether parents take any leave, and secondly on the length of leave—is limited to children living outside Quebec.

Mothers who work full time are more likely to take leave

In a model predicting whether non-Quebec resident mothers take any leave, several employment characteristics were found to be important when controlling for the child's sex, whether the child was first born, maternal age, and parental education and income. These employment characteristics reflect the parent's status at the time of the survey and not necessarily before the birth or adoption of their child.

Mothers were less likely to take leave if they were self-employed, but more likely to do so if they were full-time workers (Table 2).^{Note 11} More specifically, self-employed mothers had lower odds of taking paid leave and higher odds of taking unpaid leave compared with those who were not self-employed (data not shown). Mothers who were working full time were more than twice as likely to take paid leave as mothers who were working part time, but equally likely to take unpaid leave. Mothers who worked shifts had lower odds of taking any unpaid leave than those who worked regular hours.

Table 2 Logistic regression predicting any leave, by employment characteristics, children aged 1 to 3 years living outside Quebec

Mothers who reported post-partum depression had higher odds of taking any leave, in particular any paid leave, compared with mothers who did not (Table 3). Mothers who gave birth to multiple children (twins, triplets, etc.) were more likely to take paid leave than mothers who gave birth to one child (data not shown).

Table 3 Logistic regression predicting any leave, by child and maternal health, children aged 1 to 3 years living outside Quebec

Fathers working full time are less likely to take leave

Among fathers living outside Quebec, those working in the public sector at the time of the survey had greater odds of taking any leave than those working in the private sector. Fathers working full time were less likely to take any leave, compared with their part-time counterparts (Table 2). Fathers in Nordic countries have also been shown to be less likely to take leave, for example when they are self-employed,^{Note 12} and more likely to do so if they are in certain professions such as teaching, health, or social services,^{Note 13} or when they work in the public sector.^{Note 14}

In terms of the type of leave they took, both self-employed fathers and fathers working full time were less likely to take paid leave (data not shown). Fathers working in the public sector were more likely to take paid leave but less likely to take unpaid leave than fathers working in the private sector.

The odds of fathers taking any leave were more than two times higher when the child was part of a multiple birth compared with a singleton birth. However, the odds of fathers taking leave were lower when their child was in good, fair, or poor health at birth than when their child was in excellent or very good health at birth (Table 3). Children who received some type of special care at birth had higher odds of having fathers who took paid leave, and those whose mother reported post-partum depression had fathers with higher odds of taking unpaid leave (data not shown).

Self-employment associated with shorter leave for mothers

Overall, mothers of 1- to 3-year-olds living outside Quebec who were self-employed at the time of the survey took less total leave time (29 weeks) for the birth or adoption of their child than those who were not self-employed (48 weeks) (Chart 2). Although they took less time overall, self-employed mothers took shorter paid leave but longer unpaid leave (data not shown). The effect of self-employment on total leave time remained significant even after considering the child's sex and whether they were first born, the mother's age, income,^{Note 15} education, and other employment characteristics (Table A.1).

Chart 2 Among children with self-employed parents and children with fathers who work full time, parents take fewer weeks of leave

There were no significant differences in total length of leave for mothers who worked shift work (versus regular hours) or in the public (versus private) sector. In addition, no differences in total length of leave were observed between mothers who worked full time and those who worked part time. When the father was self-employed, the mother took shorter leave than when he was not self-employed (40 weeks compared with 46 weeks) (data not shown).

Mothers' leave affected by post-partum depression

Mothers who reported post-partum depression (12% of the sample) had longer leaves (50 weeks), on average, than other mothers (43 weeks) (Chart 3). The effect on total leave time remained the same, however, even after considering the child's sex, whether the child was first born, health characteristics, and the mother's age, income and education (Table A.2). Maternal depression had a significant effect on increasing the length of paid but not unpaid leave (data not shown).

Among children living outside Quebec, those born prematurely (11% of the sample) had mothers who reported taking longer total leave—mothers of children born prematurely took an average of 49 weeks, compared with 43 weeks for other mothers (Chart 3). However, the association between premature birth and length of leave was not significant once mothers' income and education, and other child health factors, were considered. If the child was part of a multiple birth (2% of the sample), received special medical care (15%), or was reported to be in good, fair, or poor health at birth (13%), no significant differences were found in mothers' total length of leave (Table A.2).

Chart 3 Among children born prematurely and children with mothers reporting post-partum depression, mothers take longer leave

Self-employed fathers take shorter leave

For children living outside Quebec, certain aspects of fathers' employment at the time of the survey were related to the total length of their leave. Fathers who worked full time took a shorter total leave than those who worked part time (Chart 2) and specifically took shorter paid leave, compared with fathers who worked part time.

Fathers who were self-employed took shorter total leave compared with those who were not self-employed. This remained the case regardless of the child's sex, whether the child was first born, the mother's age, and the father's income, education and employment (Table A.1). In addition, the total length of leave was longer among fathers in the public sector (Chart 2).

Children with special medical needs at birth have fathers who take longer leave

Children with special medical needs at birth had fathers who took longer leave (3.7 weeks) compared with other children (2.2 weeks) (Chart 3). This difference was significant for paid leave but not for unpaid leave. However, the effect of the child's special medical needs on the total length of the father's leave disappeared once child and maternal health factors were considered (Table A.2), which suggests that this association may be accounted for by other child or parent characteristics (e.g., the father's income).

However, fathers took shorter total leave when the child was reported to be in good, fair, or poor health at birth, compared to being in excellent or very good health, when controlling for the child's sex, whether the child was first-born, maternal age, and paternal education and income. Children who were in good, fair or poor health at birth were more likely to live in a home with a single income earner than were children in excellent or very good health. Also, children who were reported to be in good, fair or poor health at birth were not necessarily the same children as those who were reported to require special medical needs at birth.

Summary

According to the 2010 Survey of Young Canadians, the vast majority (90%) of Canadian children aged 1 to 3 years living outside Quebec had mothers who took some type of leave from work at the time of the child's birth or adoption. One-quarter (26%) of these children had fathers who reported taking leave. The average length of time on leave was 44 weeks for mothers and 2.4 weeks for fathers. This leave time is often a combination of paid and unpaid leave. Although the current study cannot address income replacement or eligibility for government programs (CEIP/QPIP), the length of a parent's leave can be affected by their entitlements to leave, particularly paid leave.^{Note 16}

Among children living in Quebec whose mothers were working prior to their birth or adoption, almost all had mothers who took leave (99%), with most (97%) taking paid leave. About three-quarters (76%) of children in Quebec had fathers who took leave. In terms of the total length of leave taken by parents in Quebec, mothers took about 5 weeks more leave and fathers about 3 weeks more leave than their counterparts elsewhere in Canada.

Leave differed according to mothers' and fathers' employment characteristics at the time of the survey, and child and maternal health at the time of the birth or adoption. Self-employment was particularly relevant: both mothers and fathers who were self-employed took shorter leaves, even after considering the child's sex, whether the child was first-born, the mother's age, and parental education and income. Among children whose mothers reported post-partum depression, mothers took longer leave. The findings suggest that parental employment characteristics and child and maternal health affect the amount of leave time parents take from work to spend with their child at the time of the birth or adoption.

Leanne C. Findlay is a senior social science researcher and Dafna E. Kohen is a principal research analyst in the Health Analysis Division of Statistics Canada.

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Notes

1. Brooks-Gunn, J., W.-J. Han and J. Walfogel. 2002. "Maternal employment and child cognitive outcomes in the first three years of life: the NICHD study of early child care." Child Development. Vol. 73, no. 4;  
   Almqvist, A.-L. 2008. "Why most Swedish fathers and few French fathers use paid parental leave: an exploratory qualitative study of parents." Fathering.Vol. 6, no. 2.
2. Reich, N. 2011. "Predictors of father's use of parental leave in Germany." Population Review. Vol. 50, no. 2.
3. Mansdotter, A., P. Fredlund, J. Hallqvist and C. Magnusson. 2010. "Who takes paternity leave? A cohort study on prior social and health characteristics among fathers in Stockholm." Journal of Public Health Policy. Vol. 31, no. 3.
4. International Labour Office, 2010. Maternity at Work: A Review of National Legislation Second Edition. International Labour Office, Conditions of Work and Employment Program;
   Moss, P. 2011. International Review of Leave Policy and Related Research 2011. International Network on Leave Policies and Research.
5. Bernal, R. 2008. "The effect of maternal employment and child care on children's cognitive development." International Economic Review. Vol. 49, no. 4.
6. Fox, E., G. Pascall and T. Warren. 2009. "Work–family policies, participation, and practices: fathers and childcare in Europe." Community, Work and Family. Vol. 12, no. 3.
7. Marshall, K. 2008. "Fathers' use of paid parental leave." Perspectives on Labour and Income. Vol. 9, no. 6. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 75-001-X.
8. Beaupré, P., and E. Cloutier. 2007. "Navigating family transitions: evidence from the General Social Survey." No. 2. General Social Survey Cycle 20: Family Transitions Survey. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 89-625-XIE.
9. Differences with previous Canadian findings comparing the length of fathers' leave may be due to differences in the analysis strategy. This study considers the average length of time taken by all fathers, including those who do not take leave at all, whereas Marshall (2008) considered the length of CEIP/QPIP benefits only among those who claimed such benefits.
10. Marshall. 2008. 
11. At the time of the survey, self-employed parents would not have been eligible for CEIP. However, given changes in eligibility that allow self-employed individuals to contribute, future research might examine the impact of self-employment on leave.
12. Mansdotter, Fredlund, Hallqvist and Magnusson. 2010.
13. Naz, G. 2010. "Usage of parental leave by fathers in Norway." International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy.Vol. 30, no. 5 and 6.
14. Bygren, M., and A.-Z. Duvander. 2005. "Parents' workplace situation and fathers' parental leave use." Journal of Marriage and Family. Vol. 68.
15. Similar results were obtained when controlling for total household income (versus mother's income).
16. Pérusse, D. 2003. "New maternity and parental benefits." Perspectives on Labour and Income. Vol. 4, no. 3. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 75-001-X;
    Baker, M., and K. Milligan. 2008. "How does job-protected maternity leave affect mothers' employment?" Journal of Labor Economics.Vol. 26, no. 4.

Table A.1 Linear regression predicting length of leave, by employment characteristics, children aged 1 to 3 years living outside Quebec

Table A.2 Linear regression predicting length of leave, by child and maternal health, children aged 1 to 3 years living outside Quebec