Section 3 Factors influencing the evolution of the population with French as a mother tongue

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3.1 Transmission of mother tongue and the effect of exogamy
3.2 Age structure
3.3 Language transfers or intragenerational linguistic mobility
3.4 Use of French in the public sphere
3.5 Knowledge of French
3.6 Migration (interprovincial and international migratory movements)
3.6.1 Place of birth
3.6.2 International immigration
3.6.3 Interprovincial migration

How the language groups in a given province or region evolve depends on the combined effect of different factors: on the one hand, the determinants of natural increase—fertility and mortality—and on the other hand, internal and international migration. In Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, the latter two factors are of particular interest. An additional factor is intergenerational linguistic continuity, that is, the mother-to-child transmission of the mother tongue.¹ Yet another factor will also be described in this section, namely intragenerational linguistic continuity or its obverse, language substitution or transfer. The latter, while it does not directly influence how a language group evolves in the short term, can nevertheless have a major long-term influence, in that the language predominantly used in the home is generally the one transmitted to the children.

In this section, much of the information provided will focus on the French-mother-tongue group in Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut. However, in some cases, in particular the case of interprovincial migration and international immigration, the analysis will also cover the population with French as the first official language spoken.

3.1 Transmission of mother tongue and the effect of exogamy

The tendency to pass on a language to one's children varies according to a number of factors; one of the most important of these is the geographic concentration of the population comprising a given language group. This factor also influences the propensity to form an exogamous couple, that is, a couple in which the partners do not have the same mother tongue. Also, the weaker the geographic concentration or relative weight of a language group in a given community, the lower the propensity of parents to transmit the minority language. As Chart 3.1.1 shows, among children under 18 years of age living in a family headed by a couple with at least one French-mother-tongue parent the proportion of those to whom French is passed on as a mother tongue varies considerably from one territory to another. While in Yukon, nearly 60% of such children inherit French as a mother tongue, the corresponding proportion is in the range of 35% in Nunavut and the Northwest Territories.²

Chart 3.1.1 Proportion of children under 18 years of age with French as mother tongue among families where at least one of the parents has French as mother tongue, Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut and the territories as a whole, 2006

The proportion of Francophones within a given region, or indeed their level of geographic concentration, leads to different propensities to form linguistically mixed or exogamous couples. In 2006, the proportion of children living in an English-French exogamous family in the territories accounted for 62% of children living in a family with at least one French-mother-tongue parent and with children under 18 years of age (See Chart 3.1.2).

Chart 3.1.2 Percentage of children under 18 years of age living in a family where at least one parent is of French-mother tongue, by mother tongue of parents, Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut and the territories as a whole, 2006

Among children under 18 years of age living in a family in which at least one spouse has French as a mother tongue, the proportion living in an exogamous family also varies depending on the territory of residence (see Chart 3.1.2). The propensity for children to live in a family with both parents having French as their mother tongue is greatest in Yukon (28%), whereas in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, the corresponding proportions are 17% and 14% respectively. In the territories, eight children in ten with at least one French-mother-tongue parent live in an exogamous family. Generally in such families, the other parent has English as the mother tongue, except in Nunavut where nearly five children in ten with a French-mother-tongue parent also have a parent with a mother tongue other than French or English.

In 2006, nearly 30% of children under 18 years of age with English-French exogamous parents had French as their mother tongue and nearly 9% reported having both French and English (see Chart 3.1.3). In households headed by French-"other"-language exogamous couples, less than 7% of children had French as their mother tongue. Where both parents were French-speaking, much larger proportions of children were transmitted French as a mother tongue, at more than 85%.

Chart 3.1.3 Mother tongue of children under 18 years of age by mother tongue of parents, the territories as a whole, 2006

In general, women are proportionally more likely to pass on their mother tongue than men. In 2006, 54% of French-mother-tongue mothers whose spouse had English as a mother tongue transmitted French to their children, compared to only 18% of French-mother-tongue fathers living with a spouse whose mother tongue was English.

The transmission of French to children living in French-English exogamous families goes hand in hand with an increase in the French-English bilingualism of non-Francophone spouses. Table 3.1 shows the proportion, in French-English exogamous families, of non-Francophone spouses who can conduct a conversation in both French and English. This table shows that in 2006, the proportion of non-Francophone male partners who could conduct a conversation in French and English was substantially larger than the proportion of non-Francophone female partners who could do so, at 25% compared to 18%.

It is also worth noting that in 2006, 14% of French-mother-tongue women living with an English-speaking male partner spoke French most often at home, compared to 7% of French-mother-tongue males living with an English-speaking female partner.

Table 3.1 Proportion of partners with a mother tongue other than French who can conduct a conversation in both English and French by type of couple, the territories as a whole, 2006

3.2 Age structure

How a population evolves demographically mostly depends on whether it maintains its numbers, which is mainly done through births, international immigration and interprovincial migration. Chart 3.2.1 shows how the age structure of the French-mother-tongue population in Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut has changed over time. Since 1971, the French-mother-tongue population in the territories has grown by nearly 1,000, going from 1,610 to 2,555 persons in 2006. The increase was greatest among persons aged 30 to 59. For the most part, it reflects the substantial interprovincial mobility of persons in these age groups.

Chart 3.2.1 Age structure of the French mother tongue population, the territories as a whole, 1971 and 2006

Chart 3.2.2 shows the age structure of the main mother-tongue groups in Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in 2006. As may be seen, the relative share of the cohorts aged 25 to 74 in the French-mother-tongue group is greater than in the other two groups. This mainly reflects a greater propensity of the Francophone group to migrate from a province to the territories, and vice-versa, as will be seen further on (see Section 3.6.3).

Chart 3.2.2 Age structure of French, English and Other mother tongue populations, the territories as a whole, 2006 (rate per 1,000)

3.3 Language transfers or intragenerational linguistic mobility

Language transfers, also called language shifts, refer to the phenomenon where the main language used at home differs from the individual's mother tongue. This language mobility phenomenon has no direct bearing on the evolution of language groups defined according to mother tongue. However, since the language that dominates in the home is generally the one that is passed on to the children, it influences the long-term future of language groups. Also, when the criterion used to define language groups is the first official language spoken, the language spoken most often at home has a direct influence on the size of the Francophone group. For example, according to this criterion, persons who have knowledge of both official languages and who have both French and English or an "other" language as a mother tongue are part of the English-speaking group if they speak English most often at home. By the same token, persons with an "other" mother tongue who know both official languages and who speak French most often at home are part of the group with French as the first official language spoken.

Through successive censuses, there has been a very slight fluctuation in language transfer for persons with French as a mother tongue in the territories. Thus, in 1971, nearly 60% of Francophones in the territories reported speaking another language, usually English, most often at home. Among persons with a mother tongue other than French or English, the corresponding proportion was 27%. Thirty-five years later, 55% of French-mother-tongue persons reported speaking a language other than French most often at home. Among persons with a mother tongue other than French or English, the proportion of language transfers rose to nearly 40%.

Table 3.3.1 Rate of language transfer by mother tongue, the territories as a whole, 1971 to 2006

A linguistic continuity index can also be used as a corollary of the language transfer rate. This index is the ratio of the number of persons with a given home language to the number of persons with the corresponding mother tongue. When the index is greater than 1, this means that the group comes out ahead in exchanges with other language groups, while an index lower than 1 indicates an unfavourable situation for the group in question.

According to the statistics presented in Table 3.3.2 , the English-mother-tongue group in the territories had a linguistic continuity index of 1.20 in 2006, while that of the Francophone group was 0.49, showing that a sizable number of Francophones report speaking a language other than French, usually English, most often at home.

Table 3.3.2 Population by mother tongue, language spoken most often at home and linguistic continuity index, the territories as a whole, 2006

Because individuals' main home language may differ from their mother tongue, the concept of language transfer has often been seen as a phenomenon indicating abandonment of one's mother tongue. But since 2001, the Canadian census has included a question on languages, other than the main language, that are spoken on a regular basis at home. Although it may be difficult to judge how respondents interpret this new question, qualitative tests conducted on respondents as well as survey results Survey on the Vitality of Official-Language Minorities (SVOLM) have shown that respondents usually consider it to refer to daily use of that language.

Based on the census results for this question, a distinction can be made between partial and complete language transfer. As a corollary to this distinction, there is a need to qualify the concept of linguistic continuity, insofar as using one's mother tongue on a regular basis at home cannot be interpreted as linguistic discontinuity.

In 2006, nearly 1,200 inhabitants of Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut spoke French as the only main language at home, while almost 150 reported speaking that language most often in combination with English or another language (See Table 3.3.3). Thus, nearly 1.3% of the population of the territories reported having French as the main language spoken at home. Data from the 2006 Census show that a similar number of persons, namely 1,355, reported speaking French on a regular basis at home, although not as their main home language (See Table 3.3.4). In short, French was spoken either most often or on a regular basis by nearly 3% of the population.

Table 3.3.3 Population by mother tongue, language spoken most often at home and other languages spoken regularly at home, Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut, 2006

An examination of the data in tables 3.3.3 and 3.3.4 pertaining to the three Canadian territories reveals that French is used slightly more in Yukon, both as a mother tongue and as the first official language spoken or a language spoken at home. Whereas more than 4% of the population of Yukon in 2006 reported having French as first official language or speaking French at home, the proportions were approximately 2.5% in the Northwest Territories and slightly more than 1% in Nunavut.

Table 3.3.4 Number and proportion of persons with French as mother tongue, first official language spoken, language spoken most often at home and language spoken regularly at home, Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut and the territories as a whole, 2006

Information on the regular use of French as a secondary language in the home serves to distinguish complete language transfers from partial language transfers. Thus, based on single responses to the question on the first language learned and still understood at the time of the 2006 Census (usually called the mother tongue), table 3.3.5 shows that for the territories as a whole, 33% of persons with French as their mother tongue do not use French at least regularly at home (complete transfer), while 22% speak it on a regular basis (partial transfer). Of course, these percentages vary depending on the territory of residence. However, it should be kept in mind that these variations are due in part to small numbers. The fact remains that in the territories; approximately one Francophone in two does not use French most often as the home language. It is in Yukon that Francophones use their mother tongue at home the most.

Table 3.3.5 Rate of complete and partial language transfers of Francophones, Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut and the territories as a whole, 2006

We also know that language transfer rates vary by age group (See Table 3.3.6). Francophones under 15 years of age have a greater tendency to speak French most often at home than those in other age groups. The fact is that the linguistic paths of Francophones in the territories who live in a minority situation are influenced by their life paths (type of educational institution attended, main language of friends, work environment, spouse's language group, etc.). The 2006 statistics show that in the territories, the older Francophones are, the more likely they are to have made a language transfer. However, starting at age 25, partial language transfers show little variation in that French is the language spoken at home on a regular basis³ by more than two out of ten Francophones aged 25 or over.

Table 3.3.6 Rate of complete and partial language transfers of Francophones by age group, the territories as a whole, 2006

3.4 Use of French in the public sphere

Statistics from the Census of Population shed light on the use of languages both in the private sphere (at home) and in the workplace, as we will see in the section dealing with the labour force. But what do we know about the use of languages—French in particular—in areas of interaction other than in the home?

The Survey on the Vitality of Official-Language Minorities includes a number of questions on the use of languages in various domains in the public sphere such as stores, health care institutions (which will be examined in detail in the next section), volunteer activities, social support, community or sports activities, etc. Some questions in the survey also deal with domains on the borderline between the private and public spheres, such as the language spoken with friends outside the home and the language in which various media are "consumed." Just like in other domains, media consumption in French depends not only on individual choices but also on the degree to which the various media are accessible in this language, although the Internet has significantly improved things to this regard.

The use of French outside the home varies from one domain to another in the public sphere, but regardless of the domain examined, English is the main language used. The use of English is greatest in institutions and businesses (where 86% of Francophones use only or mainly English), and in consumption of the different cultural media (radio, television, newspapers, books, Internet), where the corresponding proportion is 74%. English also predominates in interactions with friends (66%), in the immediate network (68%) and at work (58%) (See Table B in Appendix B).

3.5 Knowledge of French

When persons for whom French is not the mother tongue are able to conduct a conversation in that language, this can give those for whom it is the main language (definition) more opportunities to use it.

While less than 3% of the population of Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut reports French as a mother tongue, the proportion of the overall population of the territories reporting that they are able to conduct a conversation in French is roughly 8%. In 2006, while 90% of French-mother-tongue persons reported a knowledge of both official languages, the corresponding proportion was only 8% for English-mother-tongue persons and 3% for persons with a mother tongue other than French or English. Among the latter group, 8% reported that they could not conduct a conversation in either French or English.

The knowledge of French is proportionally greater in Yukon (12%) and the Northwest Territories (9%) than in Nunavut (4%), while the latter territory has the largest proportion of the population that knows neither French nor English (8%, compared to less than 1% in Yukon and the Northwest Territories).

Table 3.5.1 Knowledge of official languages by mother tongue, Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut and the territories as a whole, 2006

3.6 Migration (interprovincial and international migratory movements)

The mobility of Francophones within Canada and, to a lesser extent, the contribution of international immigration are factors that influence the evolution of the French-speaking population of Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut.

3.6.1 Place of birth

Chart 3.6.1 shows the place of birth of Francophones in the territories. In 2006, approximately three-quarters of them were born in a Canadian province. This proportion varies little from one territory to the other. However, a much smaller proportion of Francophones were born in the territories, namely 12%. This proportion varied from 10% to 18% depending on the territory of residence. As for persons born abroad, they accounted for 12% of the French-speaking population of the territories, with the proportion ranging from 6% to 14% depending on the territory of residence.

Chart 3.6.1 Place of birth of Francophones , Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut and the territories as a whole, 2006

3.6.2 International immigration

The territories receive very few international immigrants. In 2006, more than 7,000 individuals born outside Canada were enumerated in the territories. Of these immigrants, a very small proportion—4.3%—reported French as a first official language spoken. Nevertheless, while the relative weight of the English-speaking immigrant population within the Anglophone population of the territories was nearly 7% in the last census, the relative weight of the French first official language spoken immigrant population within the Francophone population was 12%.

3.6.3 Interprovincial migration

Since 1981, the number of interprovincial migrants with French as their first official language spoken has varied very little and is generally between 700 and 900 persons. As a result, the relative net migration of this population in the territories has also changed very little and has been practically nil for 25 years.

Table 3.6.3 Interprovincial migration of Francophones between the three territories and the provinces, 1981 to 1986, 1986 to 1991, 1991 to 1996, 1996 to 2001 and 2001 to 2006

Proportionally more Francophones than Anglophones or allophones migrated to the territories between 2001 and 2006. Indeed, as shown in Chart 3.6.3.1-a, of the individuals with French as their mother tongue who were living in the territories in 2006, 31% were living elsewhere in Canada—that is, in one of the Canadian provinces outside of the territories—in 2001. By comparison, 16% of those with English as their mother tongue, 2% of those with an Aboriginal mother tongue and 15% of those with an other mother tongue living in the territories had made such a migration between 2001 and 2006.

Chart 3.6.3.1-a Proportion of people living in the territories in 2006 who lived elsewhere in Canada in 2001 by mother tongue, 5 years and over, 2006

Conversely, when examining the data pertaining to the population that resided in one of the territories in 2001 and that migrated to a Canadian province during the 2001 to 2006 period (see Chart 3.6.3.1-b), we note once more that Francophones are proportionately more numerous to have migrated. Thus, 37% of individuals with French as a mother tongue that resided in one or another of the territories in 2001 had migrated to a province in the course of that period, in comparison to 18% of Anglophones, 19% of those with an other mother tongue and 1% of individuals with an Aboriginal mother tongue.

Chart 3.6.3.1-b Proportion of persons who lived in the territories in 2001 and who lived elsewhere in Canada in 2006 by mother tongue, 5 years and over, 2006

Charts 3.6.3.2 and 3.6.3.3 show the migratory movements between the territories and the provinces between 2001 and 2006. As may be seen, of the roughly 800 Francophones who came from provinces to settle in the territories, 54% were living in Quebec in 2001, compared to 17% in Ontario, 9% in British Columbia, 7% in New Brunswick and 13% in the other provinces. By the same token, of the 945 Francophones who were living in the territories in 2001 and who migrated to a province, nearly 40% settled in Quebec, 16% in Ontario, 14% in Alberta and 10% in New Brunswick.

Chart 3.6.3.2 Origin of Franchophones who lived in a province in 2001 and who moved to the territories between 2001 and 2006

Chart 3.6.3.3 Destination of Francophones who left the territories between 2001 and 2006

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Notes

1. Of course, a language is also transmitted from fathers to their children, but it is usually the mother's language that predominates.
2. Note that in the territories as a whole, the number of children living in a family in which at least one spouse is French-speaking is slightly more than 800. Consequently, because of the small numbers from which they are drawn, the percentages given throughout section 3.1 referring to this sub-group of the population may be subject to variations.
3. Other than the language spoken most often.